-She received a degree in Philosophy from the University of Crete

-a Master Diploma in Cultural Management from Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences and

-a doctorate of philosophy (Ph.D.) from the University of Athens.

She is the author of the book, Ideal Societies. From Plato to Campanella, Academy of Athens, Athens, 2005.

Socrates

Summary

Socrates is the only philosopher who brings philosophy to the center of the city, the agora. Through the dialectical method he communicates with the citizens and leads them to the discovery of truth. The purpose of his philosophy is the eudaimonia (happiness) of citizens, which is acquired by means of virtue. Hence, the role model of the citizen is the virtuous citizen.

Introduction

Socrates (470-399 BC) lived through the whole of the 5th century BC- through the Golden Age of Pericles, the century of the Parthenon, of Ictinus and Phidias, of the Aeschylean theatre, of Sophocles and Euripides. It is a century of great inspiration and influence on Western thought. It is the age in which democracy is established and trade begins giving rise to a new kind of freedom. Socrates contributes to the birth of this new world. He marks the end of the Age of natural philosophers and sophists and introduces a new Age. He is the one who determines the name of Presocratics. After him, nothing is ever the same again. Being progressive and invigorating, he identifies himself with the philosopher per se, who is characterized by his persistent search for truth, his amazing inurement and bravery in war.

Socrates is the teacher who helps the student to come face to face with himself. He introduces an attitude of constant learning and his philosophy is moral. He also

introduces the dialogue and establishes dialectics in the west paving the path for the spirit which leads to eudaimonia.

The Oracle of Delphi

In 420 BC Socrates is 50 years old. His friend Chaerephon has been chosen to lead the procession who is to consult the Delphi sanctuary. Chaerefon seizes the opportunity to ask the oracle ‘who is wiser than Socrates´ and Pythia replies that there is none wiser than Socrates. Socrates is puzzled by the oracle and decides to examine thoroughly all the men who were considered wise at that moment-politicians, poets, craftsmen- so as to find a truly wise man in order to prove the oracle wrong. His search always leads him to the same conclusion: nobody knows anything about the things he pretends to know and everyone resents being proven ignorant. Finally, Socrates comprehends the meaning of the oracle. It does not mean that Socrates knows more, but his wisdom consists of the fact that he knows that he is ignorant, of his famous saying ‘One thing only I know that I know nothing’. The one that realizes that he knows nothing may search and find out what it is that he does not know. ‘Know thyself’ , which is inscribed on the pediment of Apollo temple in Delphi, means that by knowing oneself, one gets to know the universe and the gods. Socrates is wise because he realizes his own ignorance and the lack of wisdom awakens within him a deep love for it. This is where Socrates is in contrast with Sophists who are not interested in the pursuit of truth but to prove that they are right using all means. They refuse to define what good is because in their opinion, good is completely relative established by circumstances. The important thing for them is not to gain control over oneself but over the others.

Close examination and inspection can prove that human wisdom is insignificant and there is not a truly wise man among people as wisdom is a privilege of gods.

Dialectic

Dialectic is the method that Socrates uses to challenge the soul in depth so as to liberate it from errors and prepare it for the understanding of truth. The aim of the Socratic dialectic-elenctic method is to test the soul of his interlocutor – old or young – so as to persuade him to come face to face with himself without illusions. Here is how the dialectical method is presented as “denudation of the soul” in Charmides (153d;-154e). When Socrates was one day presented to a very handsome young man, he replied: ‘…………….’ Also, rejection is presented as a kind of great catharsis in Sophist (230b;-e): ‘      ’.

Discourse is the means to access dialectic. The dialectical speech is the subversion of the traditional mimesis of poetic speech.

Therefore, dialectic is the conciliation of two -on the surface- opposing reasons, which leads to a higher truth through a play of questions, in which first the false beliefs of the interlocutor are overturned. Dialectic seeks for the essence of what is being examined.

Dialectic consists of three stages: the first stage is the acknowledgement of ignorance, the acceptance of our shortcomings and the pursuit of what we lack. Introspection leads us to the depth of ourselves. The second stage is the riddance of false beliefs through dialogue or the ascent of the conscience (which is the entryway into philosophy) and thus, we reach the third stage of Maieutic and the birth of self. The aim of Maieutic is for the man to discover what he knows, who he really is, so as to get to know his inner value, his being. Thus, Maieutic leads to the transformation of the philosopher into a wise man.

Maieutic constitutes one of the famous metaphors of the Socratic philosophy and moreover, a landmark in modern pedagogies in various ways: «….» Socrates mentions in Theaetetus ( 148e; – 151d;), «.   ».

Irony

The Socratic dialectical method is founded on irony. In fact, irony is part of his pedagogical approach, meaning the healing of the soul. Every irony is based on the fact that the true meaning is different from the one that is apparent at first. The Socratic irony puts one’s entire life through this process pointing to those who think they have understood it that something else is important other than the one they think at first glance. In this way, irony encapsulates a pedagogical and educational power within its core. According to Patocka, the real character of the Socratic irony moves in two life stages: the first general one, where all people are found as well as Socrates who consciously places himself in it and the other one, the personal level of Socrates.

The Socratic irony that Kierkergaard has praised so much regards the testing of knowledge through ignorance and the pursuit of what the definition and the appropriate wording of every concept is; this irony is actually the cornerstone of the Socratic dialectic.

Socrates uses irony not to mock people but because irony is the only rhetoric and pedagogical way to allow the student’s awakening urging him at the same time to find the answers on his own. Through irony Socrates acts as a mirror that reflects upon his interlocutor his image, his questions, his shortcomings, his very nature. Socrates acts a role like the actor of the ancient Greek theater who is wearing a mask, the one of his interlocutor’s personality. Once the interlocutor sees through it, he is liberated and can become his true self. Socrates adopts a facade through words and actions by becoming a seemingly inseparable friend of the interlocutor or one that admires his abilities. He pretends that he is ignorant and naïve taking an inferior position towards his interlocutor so that the latter realizes what his own true level is. The method is the following:  he takes the place of his interlocutor, he makes him accept the

consequences of his position and through a series of affirmations, he proves the contradiction of his initial position. Hence, the purpose of this irony is to cause a shock and provide the interlocutor with food for thought.

The true relationship between teacher and student is established only when the student discovers within him all the things that the teacher has told him. As long as the student does not accept this knowledge, progress is not feasible. The role of the teacher is to pave the way for such an effort. Socratic teaching is not just a mere transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the student but the process in which students get involved in a subversive conversation with the aim to realize their ignorance and then to discover the truth on their own.

Eros

Love permeates the relationship between teacher and student. The teacher´s vivid oral speech fertilizes the soul and directs the student´s soul eyes towards the truth. Faking ignorance, the teacher is trying to approach as much as possible his student in order to liberate him from ignorance, which is an erotic act.

The art of Eros, which Socrates claimed proudly that he was a master of, is no other than the art of caring for the souls. After being invited by Pericles in 440, Diotima, a priestess of Epicurean Apollo, comes to Athens to purify it from the plague. She is the one that initiates Socrates into the mysteries of celestial Eros. Eros is the force that conciliates the differences and unites the opposites. It is the need which urges us to pursue what we are ignorant of, through a rising path that leads from human love to divine love.

Eudaimonia

The path of dialectic ultimately leads man to inner eudaimonia.

The supreme good for Socrates is eudaimonia. Teaching men how to be content is exactly what he sought for through philosophy. Of course there should be herein a distinction between the soul and the body. Socrates clearly makes a distinction between what a human being is – his soul- and what he has – his body and material goods. The soul and its virtue are much more valuable than the material goods and the body are. The majority of people take care only of what they have, their body and fortune. However, they do not take care of what they are, their soul. The care of the soul should be the main concern of humans. A man is not only his body but he is the one that uses his body by making it submit to his will. This is what Socrates mentions on this subject in the Apology of Socrates (30a-b): «…………………………………………….. ».

Therefore, according to Socrates eudaimonia is not provided either from external goods or bodily ones, but from the goods of the soul, from the perfection of the soul through virtue. This way comes the fullness of the self and the attainment of complete harmony with ourselves. Thus, eudaimonia is an inner process liberated from the body.

The Socratic eudaimonia is an inner human condition that allows us to be part of the world of gods. Eudaimonia delineates a borderline between two worlds: the world of sad people and the world of happy gods.

Only self-control, meaning belonging to ourselves, leads to eudaimonia. True eudaimonia is for somenone to find himself.

To reach eudaimonia, someone should break free from himself and liberate his soul through practical knowledge, which is the virtues.

Virtue

Nevertheless, Socrates realises that virtue is not transmitted. Everyone ought to seek for it on his own as it is an experience that cannot be transmitted unless it is fully lived and eventually, we cannot help someone who does not want to be helped.

Yet virtue is a precondition for eudaimonia. It is the experience of principles and values in everyday life. The virtues are bravery, prudence, wisdom, justice and piety. The exercise of virtues allows for control over oneself: of the body, emotions, and mind. Self-control along with the exercise of virtues allows for Self to be born. Virtue does not seek for reward on anything apart from itself. Within virtue lies its own reward, eudaimonia. In this sense, virtue and eudaimonia overlap and without virtue eudaimonia definitely cannot exist. According to Socrates, it is the man that holds eudaimonia in his own hands because there is nothing that the others may do, which can make you unhappy.

The epilogue of Socrates

The ending of Socrates seals his life and teaching. Following his teachings, it is preferable to be subject to an injustice rather than commit it. So when Socrates is accused of impiety and immorality in 399BC, he chooses to die following the law, just as he led his whole life. He does nothing to avoid the death sentence. The fact that he can no longer do anything for Athens and its citizens is what saddens him the most as their awakening is his only concern. He is unfairly blamed for corrupting the youth and breaking the laws. He prefers death to exile or to deprivation of his political rights. He opts for death over ceasing to be an Athenian citizen, a free human being. He chooses to die free.

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